External Publications Using GUI Data

Introduction
Despite a growing body of research on associations between adolescent digital use and well-being, few studies have investigated these associations a) longitudinally and b) across socioeconomic status. The present study uses high-quality longitudinal data to examine how digital engagement shapes socioemotional and educational outcomes from early to late adolescence across socioeconomic status (SES).

Methods
Participants are 7685 individuals (49.0% female) from the 1998 birth cohort of the longitudinal Growing Up In Ireland (GUI) survey. The survey was administered to Irish parents and children between 2007 and 2016 (at ages 9, 13, and 17/18). Fixed-effects regression modeling was used to establish associations between digital engagement and socioemotional and educational outcomes. Further Fixed-Effects models were analyzed separately by SES, to assess how associations between digital use and adolescent outcomes differ by socioeconomic groups.

Results
Results show that digital screen time increases markedly from early to late adolescence, but to a higher extent among low-SES versus high-SES groups. Heavy levels of digital screen time (i.e., 3+ hours daily) are associated with declines in well-being, particularly for external and prosocial functioning, while engagement in learning-oriented digital activities and gaming is associated with better adolescent outcomes. Yet, low-SES adolescents are globally more harmed than high-SES adolescents by their digital engagement, and high-SES adolescents benefit more from moderate levels of digital use and from engaging in learning-oriented digital activities.

Conclusions
This study suggests that digital engagement is associated with socioeconomic inequalities in adolescents’ socioemotional well-being and, to a lesser extent, educational outcomes.

Bullying can occur at all ages and has been associated with several negative impacts on the psychological and emotional well-being of victims. While the transition to adulthood may be an opportunity for victims to escape bullying, prior research has suggested some continuity of victimisation experiences into adulthood. However, research on victimisation among young adults remains scarce and no prior study has examined this issue in the Irish context. Binary logistic regression was used to examine the likelihood of victimisation at age 20 based on the respondent’s prior victimisation history and other risk factors, using data from 4693 respondents in the Growing Up in Ireland National Longitudinal Study at age 9, 13, 17 and 20. Moreover, the risk of depression and levels of global self-esteem at age 20 were examined in terms of (long-term) victimisation experiences. Respondents who were previously victimised in adolescence and respondents who were chronically victimised in childhood and adolescence were approximately 3.5 and 4 times more likely to be victimised at age 20 respectively than respondents who were never victimised. The negative outcomes of victimisation regarding the risk of depression and lower levels of self-esteem were more severe for respondents who experienced more persistent prior victimisation. In conclusion, more persistent long-term victimisation experiences are associated with more severe negative outcomes and an increased risk of continued victimisation throughout the transition to adulthood compared to less persistent or no prior victimisation. Therefore, supporting affected individuals to escape victimisation as early as possible is crucial.

Background:
Regulatory problems in infancy are associated with internalizing and externalizing symptom trajectories across childhood. It is unknown whether early screen media exposure exacerbates the association between infant regulatory problems and childhood internalizing and externalizing symptom trajectories.

Methods:
We studied 10,170 individuals from the Growing Up in Ireland ’08 cohort. Parents reported on their children’s regulatory problems at 9 months, screen media exposure at 3 years, and internalizing and externalizing symptoms at 3, 5, 7, and 9 years. Children were categorized based on their patterns of co-developing internalizing and externalizing symptoms using parallel process latent class growth analysis. Subsequently, multinominal logistic regression analyses were conducted to estimate whether screen media exposure (>1 hour or >2 hours) moderated the association between regulatory problems in infancy and co-developing internalizing and externalizing symptom classes across childhood.

Results:
There were four groups of children with distinct patterns of co-developing internalizing and externalizing symptoms: 1) low stable internalizing and low decreasing externalizing symptoms (N= 6236; 61.3%); 2) low stable internalizing and moderate stable externalizing symptoms (N= 2029; 20%); 3) moderate increasing internalizing and moderate decreasing externalizing symptoms (N= 1263; 12.4%); 4) moderate increasing internalizing and high increasing externalizing symptoms (N= 642; 6.3%). Presence of regulatory problems at 9 months and excessive screen media exposure at 3 years (particularly >2 hours) were independently associated with increased likelihood of all classes. Excessive screen media exposure at 3 years did not significantly moderate the association between regulatory problems at 9 months and internalizing and externalizing symptom trajectories.

Conclusions:
Both regulatory problems in infancy and screen media exposure >2 hours in early childhood are early risk factors for the development of internalizing and externalizing symptoms. However, the association between infant regulatory problems and childhood internalizing and externalizing symptoms appears to operate independently of excessive screen media exposure. Clinicians should be aware of, and treat, regulatory problems in infancy to prevent chronic patterns of self-regulatory problems across childhood. Further, they should discuss and advocate for family media plans with parents to help decrease the long-term negative effects on internalizing and externalizing symptoms.

This article uses two longitudinal cohort studies (Growing Up in Ireland and the National Educational Panel Study) to examine how shadow education relates to academic performance in Ireland and Germany. Patterns of take-up of, and outcomes from, shadow education are found to reflect the particular country context—aimed at maintaining performance to avoid grade retention in Germany and preparing for a high-stakes upper secondary exam in Ireland. Participation enhances academic performance but only for students with lower levels of prior achievement. However, the relationship is not much stronger than with engagement in structured out-of-school activities. Thus, shadow education appears to be one of a number of strategies used by more privileged families to secure educational advantage.

Within categories of special educational needs, emotional and behavioural difficulties have received much attention in recent years, particularly in relation to their definition and identification by parents and teachers. This paper stems from previous research which highlights how children from disadvantaged backgrounds and those attending schools designated as socio-economically disadvantaged are significantly more likely than their peers to be identified as having a special educational need of a non-normative type such as emotional behavioural difficulty (EBD). Using data from the Growing Up in Ireland study, it examines whether the EBD identified by teachers or within certain schools is matched by the child’s own performance on an internationally validated emotional and mental health measure – the Piers–Harris. Findings show that overall self-reported social emotional well-being bears a strong relationship to the probability of being identified with an EBD. However, boys, children from economically inactive and one-parent households and children attending the most disadvantaged school contexts are more likely to be identified with having an EBD, even after taking into account their social background characteristics and their scoring on the Piers–Harris measure. These findings suggest that the subjective nature of EBD identification is resulting in a disproportionate number of these children being identified with EBD. The implications of this study are explored for existing disability/SEN classification systems, school-wide intervention models and the impact on individual students labelled as EBD. Overall, the findings pose searching questions about the validity of employing SEN classification systems in deciding eligibility and types of appropriate provision.

The increasing emphasis on inclusive education internationally has broadened the definition of special educational needs (SEN) and greatly affected national prevalence estimates. In line with these international trends, in Ireland the EPSEN Act (2004) defines SEN as any “restriction in the capacity of a person to participate in or benefit from education”. Taking this broad definition, this study draws on the first longitudinal study of children in Ireland, Growing Up in Ireland, to generate a new estimate of SEN prevalence among Irish nine-year-old children. The analysis combines detailed information, collected from parents and teachers, encompassing diverse types of SEN, including physical disabilities, speech impairments, learning disabilities and emotional/behavioural difficulties. In doing so, the study establishes a SEN prevalence rate of 25 per cent among children in the mid-primary years, a rate very much in line with recent research in other European contexts. Additionally, the study details the diversity of data collected on children and young people with SEN and disabilities across agencies and government departments, the potential value of this data and directions for improved learner databases.