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The aim of this study was to examine the role of different types of home learning activities, such as reading, singing, painting, playing games, and letters and numbers (ABCs and 123 s), in the development of nonverbal reasoning skills in young children. Although much previous research has focused on the role of the home learning environment in the development of language and numeracy skills, few studies have explored other aspects of cognitive development such as nonverbal reasoning. The data were drawn from the Growing Up in Ireland study, a nationally representative longitudinal birth cohort study. We examined whether learning activities were associated with scores on standardized nonverbal reasoning and vocabulary tests of the British Ability Scales in a sample of 9793 3-year-old children. The regression models also controlled for other factors that potentially influence cognitive development such as the parent–child relationship and maternal education. The findings indicate that activities such as reading, games, and painting/drawing have a small but statistically significant association with nonverbal reasoning scores, as well as with vocabulary scores, even after controlling for other factors in the model. Teaching the alphabet or numbers did not make significant contributions to the model. The findings of the study highlight the importance of considering the role of different types of home learning activities, as well as other environmental factors, in different aspects of cognitive development. We consider the implications of the findings for theories of cognitive development and for supporting cognitive development in young children.

The aim of this study was to identify, using cluster analysis, novel sleep phenotypes in a population based cohort of infants, and to explore the associations between infant sleep profiles and their mothers’ health and well-being. 11,134 mothers of 9-month old infants were interviewed as part of the Growing Up in Ireland National Longitudinal study and reported on their health and infant’s sleep patterns. 16 infant sleep variables were recorded together with measures of parental stress, depression, health and well-being. Multiple iterations of a two-step hierarchical cluster analysis were carried out to identify the optimum number of clusters and the subset of parental-reported sleep variables required to identify distinct sleep profiles. Four distinct sleep profiles were identified based on the following variables; (1) infant sleep duration at night, (2) parental sleep duration, (3) does baby wake during night (yes, no)? (4) Usual sleep location for most of the night and, (5) parental reporting of problem infant sleep patterns. This identified two less favorable profiles with both infants and mothers sleeping less and where mothers are more likely to report their infants’ sleep patterns as problematic. Mothers of infants belonging to these sleep profiles were more likely to have higher levels of stress, depressive symptoms, and poorer self-reported health than other sleep profiles. Breastfeeding was associated with both groups and rates were highest in a group of infants that were more likely to co-sleep with their parents and have diverse ethnic backgrounds. This study demonstrates, for the first time, two infant sleep profiles with distinct phenotypical frameworks that are significantly associated with maternal stress, depression, and poorer self-report of health.

Objective
To longitudinally investigate body mass index (BMI) in young children in Ireland and identify factors and critical time points associated with changes in BMI.

Study design
Data on 11 134 children were collected in the nationally representative Growing Up in Ireland infant cohort study. Height and weight were measured at 9 months, 3 years, and 5 years of age. Multilevel regression was used to identify risk factors associated with changes in BMI over time (n = 10 377), combining a unique set of covariates collected from the child and the 2 main caregivers (usually the mother and father).

Results
The proportion of children ≥85th percentile of World Health Organization growth criteria was 39% at 9 months, 44% at 3 years, and 30% at 5 years. Children born large for gestational age (13%) and those with rapid infant weight gain (25%) consistently had higher BMI. Low average BMIs were consistently seen in children born small for gestational age (10%) or before 37 weeks (7%). Smaller variations in BMI existed for other factors including ethnicity, household structure, caregiver weight status, breastfeeding, sex, socioeconomic status, sleeping hours, childcare, and region.

Conclusions
In this study, differences at birth and in infancy appear to be most strongly associated with variation in BMI at all ages. Nevertheless, belonging to a number of other high-risk groups cumulatively could lead children to develop critical weight states. Policy-makers should target families with interventions before and during pregnancy when dominant risk factors are still modifiable. Longer-term follow-up of children may be needed to study associations later in childhood.

Keywords
Growing Up in Ireland, body mass index, childhood obesity, growth trajectories, multilevel modelling

Background
Parental obesity is a predominant risk factor for childhood obesity. Family factors including socio-economic status (SES) play a role in determining parent weight. It is essential to unpick how shared family factors impact on child weight. This study aims to investigate the association between measured parent weight status, familial socio-economic factors and the risk of childhood obesity at age 9.

Methodology/Principal Findings
Cross sectional analysis of the first wave (2008) of the Growing Up in Ireland (GUI) study. GUI is a nationally representative study of 9-year-old children (N = 8,568). Schools were selected from the national total (response rate 82%) and age eligible children (response rate 57%) were invited to participate. Children and their parents had height and weight measurements taken using standard methods. Data were reweighted to account for the sampling design. Childhood overweight and obesity prevalence were calculated using International Obesity Taskforce definitions. Multinomial logistic regression examined the association between parent weight status, indicators of SES and child weight. Overall, 25% of children were either overweight (19.3%) or obese (6.6%). Parental obesity was a significant predictor of child obesity. Of children with normal weight parents, 14.4% were overweight or obese whereas 46.2% of children with obese parents were overweight or obese. Maternal education and household class were more consistently associated with a child being in a higher body mass index category than household income. Adjusted regression indicated that female gender, one parent family type, lower maternal education, lower household class and a heavier parent weight status significantly increased the odds of childhood obesity.

Conclusions/Significance
Parental weight appears to be the most influential factor driving the childhood obesity epidemic in Ireland and is an independent predictor of child obesity across SES groups. Due to the high prevalence of obesity in parents and children, population based interventions are required.

Background
Globally, childhood obesity is a significant public health problem associated with adverse health and economic consequences. To tackle the problem, we need a comprehensive understanding on how the environment in which we live may influence obesity related behaviours and weight status. Thus, we explore if distance to and number of food outlets ([1] supermarkets and [2] convenience stores) in the local area impact on either dietary quality or body mass index (BMI) in 9-year-old children whilst controlling for socio-economic characteristics of the family.

Methods
Cross sectional analysis of the Growing Up in Ireland (GUI) Study, a two-stage clustered sample of 8568 nine year old children from the Republic of Ireland. Children were recruited from schools (response rate 82%) and age eligible children (response rate 57%) were invited to participate. Height and weight measurements were used to calculate BMI. Diet was assessed using a short food frequency questionnaire and a dietary quality score was generated based on Irish healthy eating guidelines. Socio-economic status was measured using parent reported household class, household net equivalised income and highest level of maternal education. Food access was measured as network distance to (in quintiles) and number of (within 1000km) convenience stores and supermarkets to each participant’s household within the local area. Separate fixed effects regression models were used to assess the impact of local area food access on (1) dietary quality and (2) BMI, stratified by gender.

Results
After controlling for socio-economic characteristics of the household, distance to the nearest supermarket was not associated with dietary quality in boys (Q5 v Q1; B = 0.84, 95% CI, –0.49 to 2.18) or girls (Q5 v Q1; B = –0.41, 95% CI, –1.60 to 0.77). Distance to the nearest convenience store was associated with dietary quality in boys (Q5 v Q1; B = 1.01, 95% CI, 0.13 to 1.89) but not in girls (Q5 v Q1; B = 0.04, 95% CI, –0.71 to 0.80). The number of convenience stores or supermarkets within 1000m of the household did not impact on dietary quality. Access to food outlets was not associated with BMI in girls or boys.

Conclusion
There was little evidence to suggest that access to food stores impact dietary quality or BMI in children. From a population health perspective, strategies tackling environmental factors associated with making poor lifestyle choices are needed. Thus, further research on the association between food access and obesity risk is needed.

Background
Orofacial clefts occur when the lips or the roof of the mouth do not fuse properly during the early weeks of pregnancy. There is strong evidence that periconceptional use of folic acid can prevent neural tube defects but its effect on oral clefts has generated debate.

Aim
To identify factors associated with suboptimal periconceptional use of folic acid and its potential effect on oral clefts.

Design and setting
The population-based infant cohort of the national Growing Up in Ireland study, which consists of 11 134 9-month-old infants.

Method
Data collection comprised questionnaires conducted by interviewers with parents in parents’ homes. Characteristics of mothers who did or did not take folic acid before and during pregnancy, as well as the effect of folic acid use on the prevalence of cleft lip and palate were recorded.

Results
The prevalence of cleft lip and palate was 1.98 (95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.31 to 2.99) per 1000 9-month-olds. The odds ratio for cleft lip was 4.36-fold higher (95% CI = 1.55 to 12.30, P = 0.005) for infants of mothers who did not take folic acid during the first 3 months of pregnancy, when compared with those who did have a folate intake during the first trimester. Folic acid use was suboptimal in 36.3% (95% CI = 35.4 to 37.2) of the sample.

Conclusion
These findings support the hypothesis that taking folic acid may partially prevent cleft lip and palate. They are particularly relevant for GPs, because they are usually the first port of call for women before and during early pregnancy.

Keywords
cleft lip, epidemiology, folic acid, general practice, infant

Background
Taking oral antibiotics during childhood has been linked with an increased risk of childhood obesity. This study assessed any potential association in number of courses of antibiotics taken between 2–3 and 4–5 years of age and body mass trajectory up to age 5.

Methods
The study was a secondary analysis of 8186 children and their parents from the infant cohort of the Irish National Longitudinal Study of Children. Antibiotic use was measured by parental recall between ages 2–3 and 4–5. Longitudinal models described the relationship between antibiotic exposure and body mass index (BMI) standard deviation scores and binary outcomes, and examined interactions between covariates, which included socioeconomic status, diet assessed by food frequency questionnaires and maternal BMI.

Results
Any antibiotic usage between 2 and 3 years did not predict risk of overweight or obesity at age 5. Four or more courses of antibiotics between 2 and 3 years were independently associated with obesity at age 5 (odds ratio 1.6, 95% confidence interval 1.11–2.31). Effect size was modest (coefficient + 0.09 body mass SD units, standard error 0.04, P = 0.037). Maternal BMI modified the relationship: ≥ 4 courses of antibiotics between 2 and 3 years were associated with a + 0.12 body mass SD units increase in weight at age 5 among children of normal-weight mothers (P = 0.035), but not in children of overweight mothers.

Conclusions
Number of antibiotic courses, rather than antibiotic use, may be an important factor in any link between early antibiotic exposure and subsequent childhood obesity. Research is needed to confirm differential effects on babies of normal versus overweight/obese mothers independent of socioeconomic factors.

Growing Up in Ireland (GUI) is the national longitudinal study of children and young people in the Republic of Ireland and has followed two cohorts for over ten years to date: Cohort ’98 who were recruited into the study at age nine years and Cohort ’08, recruited at age nine months. The study aims to describe the lives of Irish children and young people in terms of their development, with a view to positively affecting policies and services available for them. Traditionally, data collection involved in-home visits from an interviewer who conducted face-to-face interviews, recorded physical measurements of study participants and administered cognitive assessments. However, with the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic and the associated restrictions, significant adaptations were required to these methods to ensure data collection for the pilot and main fieldwork for Cohort ’08 at age 13 could continue to the expected timeline. Face-to-face interviews with participants were replaced with telephone and web-based modes, interviewer training was conducted online, online resources were made available for interviewers and participants and COVID-19 related items were added to questionnaires. In addition to the scheduled data collection, a special COVID-19 survey was also conducted on both GUI cohorts in December 2020 to explore the impact of the pandemic on participants’ lives. This paper outlines the adaptations made to traditional data collection methods in GUI, highlighting the challenges that were met, but also the benefits of some changes that may be worth incorporating into future waves of GUI.

The present study investigated the home learning environment of three to five-year-old children (n = 429) living in an area designated as socio-economically disadvantaged, involved in the Area Based Childhood (ABC) programme, compared to a nationally representative sample of three-year-old children (n = 9793), from the Growing Up in Ireland (GUI) Study. Statistical analysis of the frequency of engagement in home learning activities across both samples, revealed a significant difference in the environments to which children are exposed, with families from the GUI sample engaging more frequently in these activities than families from the ABC sample. Among the family demographic factors investigated, parent’s age and household type were significantly related to the frequency of engagement in home learning activities. Based on these findings, policy and practice implications are discussed.

Keywords
home learning environment, socio-economic disadvantage, family demographics, early childhood development